Exploring the Colorful Past of Archaic Greek Sculptures
Few subjects within the domain of ancient art have generated as much controversy and disagreement among scholars as the inquiry into polychromy in ancient Greek marble statues. The term "polychromy" or "polychrome" originates from the Greek words "poly," meaning many, and "chroma," meaning color, reflecting the tradition of embellishing Greek sculptures with a diverse array of hues.
Examining the historical narrative, the 18th century witnessed a phase of deliberate oversight regarding painted sculptures, characterized by prevalent misconceptions regarding their assumed monochromatic appearance. Nevertheless, by the close of this period, there was a scientific acknowledgment of color in Greek sculpture, illuminating the vibrant palette that once adorned these ancient masterpieces.
Responding to the query, "Were Ancient Greek marble sculptures painted?" resounds with an emphatic “yes!” The exploration into the colorful history of ancient Greek sculpture unveils a captivating journey through evolving perspectives and rediscovered truths.
"The journey through the colorful past of ancient Greek sculpture unveils a narrative of shifting perspectives, rediscovered truths, and ongoing scientific exploration. The undeniable presence of polychromy challenges historical misconceptions, allowing us to appreciate the vibrant and dynamic nature of these ancient masterpieces."
The Neoclassicism Period & the Allure of "Pure White"
The Neoclassicism period (1750-1900) played a pivotal role in shaping perceptions of ancient Greek sculpture. German art historian and archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768), a prominent figure of Neoclassicism, championed the idea of "pure white" ancient Greek marble sculpture. His emphasis on form, material, and the play of light contributed to the creation of iconic, colorless statues, exemplified by the works of neoclassical sculptor Antonio Canova (1757-1822).
Despite ancient texts explicitly stating that Greeks painted their statues, neoclassicists, influenced primarily by Roman copies and unaware of ancient polychromy, clung to the notion of whiteness. It wasn't until French archaeologist and architectural theorist Antoine-Chrysostome Quatremère de Quincy (1755-1849) introduced the term "polychromy" in 1806 that a shift began. Even with confirmed observations of color layers in Greek sculptures, however, the neoclassicists' obsession with whiteness persisted.
Quatramère de Quincy's groundbreaking contribution marked the start of a reassessment of polychromy in ancient Greek marble sculpture. The 19th century saw various architects engaging with the colors of Greek archaic architecture, attempting to capture surviving color layers through drawings and watercolors.
Drawing Reproductions & Confirmations of Polychromy
In the early 19th century, scholars like Johann Martin von Wanger (1777-1858) and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775-1854) focused on the colors of sculptures from the archaic Temple of Aphaia in Aegina. Subsequent discoveries of sculptures with impressive color decoration further validated the practice of ancient polychromy.
German archaeologist Adolf Furtwangler’s 1906 publication on the Temple of Aphaia included drawing reproductions dominated by cyan/blue, red, and white. While these drawings offered a visual confirmation of polychromy, the detailed descriptions relied on macroscopic observations.
Throughout the following decades, surviving color layers on sculptures were meticulously described and depicted in drawings and watercolors. Louis Émile Emmanuel Gilliéron (1851-1924) and his son Emile (1885-1939), Swiss painters from a century ago, produced accurate drawing reproductions that contributed to the growing acknowledgment of ancient Greek marble sculpture's polychromy.
The confirmation of ancient polychromy paved the way for modern researchers, including scientists, chemists, and conservators, to develop non-destructive methods for observing, analyzing, and identifying pigment remnants on ancient sculptures. The scientific community's unwavering interest in this subject persists, driving advancements in technology and methodologies.
The Influence of Color & Aesthetic Evolution in Greek Archaic Marble Sculpture
Over the course of approximately three centuries, spanning from 1000 BC to the mid-7th century BC, Greek art experienced a notable aesthetic evolution as polychromy fell out of widespread practice. The prevailing artistic focus shifted towards contrasting values like light-dark and white-black, leading to a reduction in the depiction of human scenes and plant motifs. This era, characterized by an emphasis on simple geometric shapes, earned the moniker "Geometric period," with a distinctive color pattern of alternating white and black.
As the Archaic period dawned in the 7th century BC, a significant addition to the ancient color palette emerged in the form of a dominant red hue, marking the inception of ancient polychromy. Red pigments were derived from minerals such as hematite, an iron oxide with a reddish-brown color resembling natural red ochre, and cinnabar, sourced from the most common ore of oxidized mercury in nature.
Throughout this time, regardless of their intended purpose, sculptures were uniformly painted. Artists crafted three-dimensional forms before infusing vibrant colors, a practice supported by historical sources indicating that the notion of an unpainted sculpture was inconceivable to ancient artists. Renowned sculptors like Phidias engaged personal painters, and figures like Praxiteles expressed a preference for pieces painted by distinguished artist-painters such as Nicias. Nevertheless, for the average ancient observer, an unpainted statue likely appeared incomprehensible and aesthetically unappealing.
"The sculpture of the archaic period was not just 'painted.' The colors were a medium that complemented the narrative character of the work. The sculpted form was the initial stage of construction that 'came to life' by painting. The main goal of the artists was to give life to a sculpture. "
The Colors Breathe Life into Archaic Sculptures
The sculpture of the archaic period was not just "painted." The colors were a medium that complemented the narrative character of the work. The sculpted form was the initial stage of construction that "came to life" by painting. The main goal of the artists was to give life to a sculpture. An example of this practice is a male limestone statue dated to 560 BC - the so-called “Moschoforos” or “Calf-Bearer” - dated around 570 BC. The sculptor initially made the irises of his eyes from a different material. In this way, the sculptures became even more vivid in the viewer's eyes.
Color was also used as a means to increase the "readability" of the form. Some elements the sculptor could hardly distinguish from each other, clothes of different fabrics for example, were augmented with varying tones of color. An example of this practice is exhibited on “Korai” statues such as the marble “Kore from Chios” dated to 510 BC, on display at the Acropolis Museum. Similarly, the pupil and iris of the eye, the decorative ribbon of a garment, or the skin of an animal or mythological creature were made readable using colors.
The ultimate objective was to make the plastic form "legible," ensuring that its impact on the viewer was entirely comprehensible. Commonly employed primary colors on Greek archaic marble sculptures included red, blue/cyan, black, white, yellow, and green, applied by the artist in layers of varying thicknesses.
One of the iconic examples of funerary marble statues is the Kouros "Kroisos" from around 530 BC. Microscopic analysis revealed multiple pigments, such as hematite and goethite, used to create layers of color. The statue's original color, including dark brown for the hair and dark red-brown for the eyes, highlights the complexity and richness of ancient Greek polychromy.
WORDS | Dr. Daphne Bika, PhD in Classical Archaeology, MSc in Museum Studies, Art Historian, Conservator of Antiquities & Works of Art IMAGES | MET Museum, Entropy Design Studio